Aerospace, Physics and Space Sciences

Project Summary

The AIAA Design, Build, Fly competition is an annual event organized by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. The objective of the competition is to challenge undergraduate and graduate students to design, build, and fly an unmanned, electric-powered, radio-controlled aircraft that meets certain mission goals. These mission objectives vary every year, and their purpose is to challenge the aircraft’s performance, including payload carrying capacity, speed, and endurance. Our team will participate in 2023’s Design, Build, Fly competition that will be held in Tuscon, Arizona.

Manufacturing Design Methods

The design was optimized for the scoring parameters. The result was a conventional wing configuration, tractor, single-engine, high-wing, taildragger aircraft. This initial design was to fly at 45mph for all three flight missions, carrying an antenna of 18” length, an internal payload of the minimum required 30% mass fraction for the full 10 minutes of the second mission, and support four times its own weight while supported by the wingtips during the ground mission. Conservative design estimates and good performance margins allowed the final aircraft to carry a 30” antenna at 52mph, fly for at least 10 minutes at 49mph while carrying a 40% mass fraction internal payload, and support over thirteen times its own weight in the ground mission.

Analysis

An analysis of each subsystem was performed to optimize and verify performance in relation to the competition scoring. Tests such as load testing of the completed wing, static thrust testing, taxi runs, and flight were performed to help verify the analysis. Computational fluid dynamics was also implemented to verify design parameters and calculations.

Future Works

The AIAA Design, Build, Fly competition is a competition that occurs annually. Florida Institute of Technology will continue to participate in future competitions.

Manufacturing Design Methods

The design was optimized for the scoring parameters. The result was a conventional wing configuration, tractor, single-engine, high-wing, taildragger aircraft. This initial design was to fly at 45mph for all three flight missions, carrying an antenna of 18” length, an internal payload of the minimum required 30% mass fraction for the full 10 minutes of the second mission, and support four times its own weight while supported by the wingtips during the ground mission. Conservative design estimates and good performance margins allowed the final aircraft to carry a 30” antenna at 52mph, fly for at least 10 minutes at 49mph while carrying a 40% mass fraction internal payload, and support over thirteen times its own weight in the ground mission.

Project Summary

BiPROP is a student-designed and manufactured liquid bi-propellant rocket that is tasked with the challenge of reaching an exact altitude of 5,000 feet. The rocket will compete in the Friends of Amateur Rocketry (FAR) Competition in the Mojave Desert. To ensure all elements of the rocket vehicle are accounted for, the team was split into six subsystems: Chamber/Injector/Nozzle, Fluid Systems, Structures, Avionics/Recovery, Ground Systems, and Safety. The main objective of BiPROP is to launch and safely recover a liquid bipropellant rocket and carry a payload of at least 1 kg that transmits and records live video of the flight. From this project objective, a design of the rocket vehicle was made, which includes an overall 4-inch diameter and approximately a height of 8 feet. A thrust of 500 pounds was determined to reach the needed altitude and will be achieved using Nitrous Oxide and Isopropyl Alcohol as oxidizer and fuel respectively. A two-stage recovery system will be utilized per competition rules, as well as an altimeter/GPS to determine the altitude. After the analysis was performed to ensure the rocket design was optimal for the set requirements, the creation of models and manufacturing began. The team utilized Fusion 360 as the main modeling software, due to its ability to allow for collaboration between multiple members on one part of the rocket. As for the analysis, the majority was done by hand using knowledge gained through the team's experience in the classroom over the last four years. Though some parts were bought commercially off the shelf, most of the rocket was manufactured in the university’s machine shop and design center. To ensure the design met the main requirement of the project, which was to launch a rocket to 5,000 feet, several tests were carried out. For the fluid systems, many of the valves were manufactured in-house. So, pipe loss tests were carried out to ensure the valves not only worked but did not decrease the mass flow of the propellants significantly. Per competition rules a hydrostatic test of the propellant tank had to be carried out, this was done with help from two other Senior Capstone projects, META Controls, and Test Stand. The main test that needed to occur was the static test fire, however before that was completed a cold flow test was needed to ensure the co-axial shear injector design is operating properly. Both tests were performed on the same day and utilized the help of the teams mentioned before. At the conclusion of this project, BiPROP was able to successfully design and manufacture a liquid bipropellant rocket that will hopefully prove to reach 5,000 feet in June of this year. The results from this project will help inspire future years of liquid bipropellant rocket designs as this project continues. The failures and setbacks faced by this year's team not only acted as learning experiences for the current members but also for future members to come.

Manufacturing Design Methods

In general, most components and subsystems will be built from the ground up. Collaboration with the Harris Student Design Center (HSDC) and machine shop leadership and facilities will be critical for the successful construction of the bipropellant rocket. Many parts will need to be machined in person which will require use of the manual and CNC machinery (i.e.: lathe, mills, welding) provided in both locations. While official operation of the rocket would be in an acceptable outdoor environment with the META test stand, assembly and installation of the rocket subsystems can be conducted at the reserved bench for the BiPROP team in the HSDC.

Analysis

In general, the team will use accepted industry methods (hand calculations, simulation tools, custom simulation codes, etc.) to compare different design approaches that satisfy the project requirements. Design solutions for the rocket and each subsystem will be selected based on their safety to personnel and equipment, feasibility, and cost. The team will use calculated and simulated results to design the rocket. Each subsystem or component will be tested to verify design works.

Future Works

The continuation of BiPROP will provide a new team of students the opportunity to investigate a variety of things including, but not limited to: Extended failure mode analysis, Performance enhancements, Digital analysis comparison, Advanced payload integration, and Improved manufacturing methods.

Manufacturing Design Methods

In general, most components and subsystems will be built from the ground up. Collaboration with the Harris Student Design Center (HSDC) and machine shop leadership and facilities will be critical for the successful construction of the bipropellant rocket. Many parts will need to be machined in person which will require use of the manual and CNC machinery (i.e.: lathe, mills, welding) provided in both locations. While official operation of the rocket would be in an acceptable outdoor environment with the META test stand, assembly and installation of the rocket subsystems can be conducted at the reserved bench for the BiPROP team in the HSDC.

Project Summary

The META Controls Center project is a solution for the remote operation of the Florida Tech META Test Stand, a mobile rocket engine test stand. The main objective of the Controls Center is to provide a central location for the control of and data acquisition from the META Test Stand.

Project Objective

The main project objective is to construct a control center for the remote operation and data collection from the META Test Stand.

Manufacturing Design Methods

The creation of the META Controls Center was achieved through the sourcing of a flight-rated rack mount case and additional rack mount hardware. The addition of a computer and additional network equipment allows for remote communication with the META Test Stand. Additional 3D printed parts were used to mount equipment and accessories inside the Control Center Case. Laser-cut panels close in and add rigidity to the case structure.

Specification

The META Controls Center case is a contained rack mount equipment case that allows for the transportation and use of the hardware required to remotely control the META Test Stand.

Analysis

Range estimations and range testing were performed for the multiple wireless communication methods resulting in a maximum testing distance of 1350ft.

Future Works

Future work could include the better integration of LabView software with test stand hardware, including the addition of additional DAQ cards to allow for more data collection from different sources. An additional proposed concept would be a method for manually disabling specific valves to test different failure modes of the plumbing system to see how LabView reacts.

Manufacturing Design Methods

The creation of the META Controls Center was achieved through the sourcing of a flight-rated rack mount case and additional rack mount hardware. The addition of a computer and additional network equipment allows for remote communication with the META Test Stand. Additional 3D printed parts were used to mount equipment and accessories inside the Control Center Case. Laser-cut panels close in and add rigidity to the case structure.

Project Summary

The META Rocket Engine senior design team set out to design, manufacture, and test a liquid bipropellant rocket engine. What set META Rocket Engine apart from other rocket engine teams was the design choice of a modular and reusable rocket engine, allowing for multiple test fires using different injector configurations. The team’s design choice ensures deliverables will be useful to Florida Institute of Technology for years to come. The modularity of the design proved to be a difficult challenge to overcome, since the assembly’s interfaces need to withstand extreme temperatures and pressures without causing a leak. To combat this issue, the team utilized mounting flanges to secure the injector plate to the combustion chamber, with a graphite gasket being used to complete the seal. A pre-load analysis was performed by the team to determine the necessary torque for each fastener in the interface. This analysis ensures the fasteners will not fail due to vibrations during a test fire. The resulting torque values from the analysis were included in the engine’s user manual, which will be passed down to future operators of the META Rocket Engine test apparatus. Reusability also proved to be challenging to implement into the design. Due to high velocity and high temperature flow moving through the thrust chamber, the team expected the nozzle’s throat to begin to erode from shearing. Throat erosion will alter the flow regime and the flow will no longer reach a choking condition, resulting in an inoperable nozzle. The throat erosion issue was addressed using hand calculations and a major design alteration of the nozzle itself. The team determined a throat length that could be implemented to reduce the impacts of shear and elected to elongate the nozzle’s throat to increase the lifespan of the engine. A performance comparison analysis was performed using ANSYS Fluent to determine possible losses due to the design change. The results revealed minimal losses with the new design, but a significant increase in lifespan. Below, the analysis of the elongated throat can be seen Each component of the rocket engine underwent rigorous analysis, through both hand calculations and varying engineering software. This includes structural and temperature analysis using ANSYS, fluid flow using CFD, and MATLAB to solve complex equations. Each analysis produced satisfactory results, establishing the confidence necessary to begin the manufacturing and assembly of the rocket engine. The results will be provided in a manual and in addition, will serve as operational limits for continuation projects under META Rocket Engine. Due to circumstances outside of the team’s control, a test fire will not occur prior to the conclusion of the academic year. Nevertheless, the team is proud to have designed and built a safe, modular, and reusable rocket engine that will yield educational opportunities in propulsion research and education for future students at Florida Institute of Technology.

Project Objective

OBJ-01. The team shall design and manufacture a liquid bipropellant rocket engine to be tested on the mobile test stand. Rationale: Provides full systems test to validate the test stand fluid systems. OBJ-02. The team shall test fire this engine before senior design showcase. Rationale: Deliver results before the end of the spring semester. OBJ-03. The engine shall be test fired on the mobile test stand to validate its ability to produce thrust. Rational: The test stand will make a readily available system to validate the engine’s function. OBJ-04. The team shall design the engine to have a modular injector plate. Rationale: Modular fuel injector allows users to modify or replace parts of interest in the design to meet requirements. OBJ-05. The team shall conduct an analysis to find a safe operating parameter for engine firing. Rationale: Establishing a safe operating parameter allows future safe use of the engine.

Manufacturing Design Methods

The team machined the nozzle out of stainless steel using a lathe. Injector plate was cut from a steel plate using a CNC mill. Injector was machined by a third party. All components were welded by Bill Bailey of the Florida Tech machine shop.

Specification

- Thrust: 360 lbf​ - Specific Impulse: 140 sec​ - Burn time: 5 sec - Chamber Pressure: 1000 psig​ - Chamber Temperature: 1165°F​ - Exit Mach: 3.14​ - Propellant: 95% Ethanol​ - Oxidizer: 50% Hydrogen Peroxide - Pressure Drop: 20%​ - Mass Flow: 2.5lbm/s​ - Discharge Coefficient: 0.5

Future Works

Unfortunately, the team was not able to execute a static test fire this year due to concerns of leakage through the test stand. We hope that future students will be able to carry on our work by conducting a hot fire with our completed engine in addition to testing alternate injector concepts.

Manufacturing Design Methods

The team machined the nozzle out of stainless steel using a lathe. Injector plate was cut from a steel plate using a CNC mill. Injector was machined by a third party. All components were welded by Bill Bailey of the Florida Tech machine shop.

Project Summary

The Mobile Engine Testing Application (META) Test Stand is capable of test-firing solid and liquid bipropellant rocket engines. This continuation project from the 2021-2022 META team required plumbing, structures, safety, and procedures modifications to support the liquid fuel, oxidizer, and cooling system. META Test Stand collaborated with META Controls and META Engines senior design teams to meet the objectives. META offered universal testing capabilities to customer teams like BiPROP and Aerospike. META shall be used for customers, STEM education outreach, and an astronautics-focused lab at Florida Tech.

Project Objective

OBJ-01 META Test Stand shall integrate a liquid bipropellant rocket and subsequent DAQ systems. ​ OBJ-02 The team shall deliver an integration, user, and safety procedures manual.​ OBJ-03 The team shall design and integrate a pump, reservoir and plumbing network for an engine cooling system.​ OBJ-04 The team shall revise the gas piping installation and conduct a maintenance check on the blast wall.​ OBJ-05 The team shall mount three 1000 lbf low profile universal or compression pancake load cells and additional sensors to the thrust structure.​ OBJ-06 The team shall fire the integrated liquid bipropellant rocket, cooling system, and control to validate test systems.

Manufacturing Design Methods

Plumbing: • The plumbing system, constructed by the 2021-2022 META team, has been modified and upgraded to comply with the objectives set for the current META team. For example, a closed-loop Cooling System was installed to cool liquid propellant rocket engines. The closed-loop cooling system allows testing to be done in remote locations. Per the plumbing requirements, all system components were limited and chosen by the operating temperature and space allocated. Structures: • The flushing tank containers needed redesigning. This involved new brackets for stabilization, new frames and connectors, new top and bottom plate for greater structural quality, and bracket, bottom, and top plate fabrication. A new pump mount was needed, and to generate one, this included verifying designs and materials through simulation (ANSYS), ordering the suitable material, and manufacturing the mount before installation. • For a new safety box with mountings, various design simulations were taken into account. This included using ANSYS and hand calculations to determine the structural load the box needed to hold and the stress it could withstand. Once this process was done, a structurally stable box and mounting brackets needed to be ordered and installed. Some minor components also needed were offset bars to screw onto the test stand for the brackets to rest on and rubber sheets to screw in between the bars and brackets to prevent unwanted vibrations. • Fuel and oxidizer load cells were needed, and the sizing and location information would be taken from the META controls team. These design components would allow the structures team to determine what material to order, where to manufacture the cells, and how to install them properly. • A new cooling pump bracket was taken into consideration. This bracket also needed to run through design verifications using ANSYS and hand calculations. Once this was done, the proper material was ordered, and the bracket was manufactured prior to installation.

Specification

• Test plans are used to provide a written testing guideline to ensure safe and smooth operations. They include the main objectives of the test, the test’s procedure, as well as assigned roles for the procedure. Communication procedures were created and added after the first test to avoid confusion with information and the walkie talkies used. • Safety procedures, hazards, and emergency contacts are listed on test plans to reduce the risk of injury to any team members. These hazards and risks are mentioned in a mandatory safety meeting prior to any testing, to ensure all personnel attending tests are aware of what to do in case of an emergency. • The testing location was determined based off the Florida State Motor Class Requirements listed below. The largest motor to be tested this year is an L Class motor, meaning a clearance radius of 300 feet is to be given around the test stand in every direction. With this information, the Compound in Palm Bay, Florida was chosen as a testing location.

Analysis

The META Test Stand team successfully worked with and accommodated customers while integrating new ideas with other META teams.​ A new piping system was developed and utilized for the hydrostatic testing of a liquid bi-propellent tank. Hand calculations and a water flow test were conducted to verify the plumbing and analyze the system's mass flow rate. Hand calculations and ANSYS stress and strain analysis demonstrated all CAD-modeled structural elements' load capabilities.

Future Works

While the team successfully used and adapted the test stand to accommodate customer teams' testing, a liquid bipropellant test fire was not conducted. In the future, a liquid bipropellant test fire can be done to verify the test stand's plumbing and structure, as well as the integrated controls and rocket engine.

Manufacturing Design Methods

Plumbing: • The plumbing system, constructed by the 2021-2022 META team, has been modified and upgraded to comply with the objectives set for the current META team. For example, a closed-loop Cooling System was installed to cool liquid propellant rocket engines. The closed-loop cooling system allows testing to be done in remote locations. Per the plumbing requirements, all system components were limited and chosen by the operating temperature and space allocated. Structures: • The flushing tank containers needed redesigning. This involved new brackets for stabilization, new frames and connectors, new top and bottom plate for greater structural quality, and bracket, bottom, and top plate fabrication. A new pump mount was needed, and to generate one, this included verifying designs and materials through simulation (ANSYS), ordering the suitable material, and manufacturing the mount before installation. • For a new safety box with mountings, various design simulations were taken into account. This included using ANSYS and hand calculations to determine the structural load the box needed to hold and the stress it could withstand. Once this process was done, a structurally stable box and mounting brackets needed to be ordered and installed. Some minor components also needed were offset bars to screw onto the test stand for the brackets to rest on and rubber sheets to screw in between the bars and brackets to prevent unwanted vibrations. • Fuel and oxidizer load cells were needed, and the sizing and location information would be taken from the META controls team. These design components would allow the structures team to determine what material to order, where to manufacture the cells, and how to install them properly. • A new cooling pump bracket was taken into consideration. This bracket also needed to run through design verifications using ANSYS and hand calculations. Once this was done, the proper material was ordered, and the bracket was manufactured prior to installation.

Project Summary

The momentum exchange tether system (METS) is a conceptual launch system that reduces the cost of delivering a spacecraft into orbit. This concept is a several-hundred-kilometer-long tether that rotates in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), where it would rendezvous with a payload and impart momentum as it releases it into a greater orbit. The fuel required to reach this rendezvous point is much less than the fuel required to reach the desired orbit by traditional rockets, reducing mission costs considerably over the course of the tether’s lifetime. A capture mechanism is required to ensure that the connection between the payload and tether is consistent, precise, and timely. A device that not only reliably captures the payload but also maximizes the timeframe in which docking occurs is desired. OASIS (seen on the left) aims to meet these standards with an autonomous retrieval system. This design shall increase the viability of future METS. The most prominent challenge to be found in the design and testing of the product was the design of the soft capture system. The soft capture Iris was found to be the best way to guide the payload to the hard capture collet, but the previous year’s iterations had flaws that needed to be overcome. Multiple iterations of the Iris would be manufactured at a smaller scale to determine the most suitable design. With these different versions of the Iris, design flaws would be found and mitigated, such as deciding between using three- and two-point bending arms for the Iris and removing the threat of mechanically locking the Iris when closed incorrectly. The final version of the Iris is the best model of the prototypes with all the potential problems mitigated to the best of the team’s ability. In the previous year’s design, the strength of the primary structure was tested using a universal testing machine by loading the structure in tension until reaching the design yield load. This primary structure has remained the same. A major focus of the 2022-2023 OASIS team was to improve the Iris and the system’s autonomy. The accuracy and precision of the OASIS’s hardware were tested through the design of a probe test stand. The probe test stand was designed to align with the soft-capture Iris based on the visual input from a camera on the stand. By doing this, the initial capture would be more likely to be successful. After this capture, a depth sensor on the Iris would signal to close around the probe so the probe would be aligned with the collet, leading into the depth sensor on the hard capture to signal the collet to close. Through this simulated rendezvous, the requirements of the system can be tested and verified. Finally, a test was performed to ensure that the retrieval mechanism could abort the mission and re-open, should an error occur. One problem that arose throughout the course of the year was how the payload probe would enter OASIS. Initially, the probe was simply an aluminum rod that would be placed into the system to be closed manually. To improve this design, the probe stand was conceptualized early in the new academic year. The stand would simulate a one-dimensional entry, where the probe simply travels up to enter the capturing system. Over time, the probe stand would evolve to be guided by the LED-detection navigation in three dimensions, to further simulate a rendezvous between a payload and the METS in LEO. The continuation of OASIS would include interfacing the retrieval mechanism with a conceptual rotating space tether system. With further design iterations, OASIS aims to aid in the capture of payloads by using an autonomous retrieval mechanism that extends the tether’s rendezvous window and increases the concept’s practicality.

Project Summary

The Biofuel Senior Design project aimed to research and develop methods for decreasing emissions on jet engines without compromising engine performance. To solve this problem, these emissions decreases can be accomplished through a combination of a post-combustion carbon capture system utilizing carbonate looping to decrease Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and a Jet-A/Ethanol Biofuel mixture which produces less Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) during combustion.

Project Objective

The objective of the project is to decrease NOx and CO2 emissions by some empirically significant amount with minimal performance losses. This project intends to be a proof of concept for these emission mitigation methods.

Manufacturing Design Methods

The design portion consisted mostly of extensive research into these topics followed by the creation of something that could feasibly be created in this environment and still work chemically. The biggest challenges we faced were: The budget, temperature requirements, and access to data acquisition tools. Due to a lack of funds, we were forced to redesign and simplify the carbon capture and heat transfer systems. In addition, the lack of funds limited our choice of resilient materials and data acquisition tools, which caused numerous redesigns of the systems and testing plans. As a solution, we will be using an on-campus facility for testing the gas samples and Larsen Industries’ performance sensors.

Specification

The exhaust and carbon capture portions were designed to these specifications, to both withstand and utilize the extreme conditions of jet exhaust (~650°C). The Carbon Capture pipe system is made of 304 Stainless Steel, which has advantages including High melting point, availability, low cost, and rigidity. For this project, Calcium Carbonate Looping was chosen which uses the high temperature of the exhaust to convert Carbon Dioxide into a stable Calcium compound. The calcium oxide is introduced into the flow where it reacts and bonds with the carbon dioxide at high temperate. The biofuel was created to alter the chemical composition of Jet-A fuel. Jet A is comprised of Kerosene-hydrodesulfurized & Kerosene (petroleum), which alters its chemical properties by increasing NOx. To reduce NOx, a 20% alteration (B20) is needed.

Analysis

From our tests we had two samples that needed further analysis to give us useful results, our exhaust gas and the Calcium Oxide (CaO) which should have turned into Calcium carbonate (CaCO3). For the CaO, we used an Electron Scanning Microscope (ESM) to confirm that the CaO did react with the Carbon in the exhaust gas to form CaCO3 and determine how much of the sample fully reacted. A Real Time Gas Analyzer (RTGA) was used to detect CO2; however, this RTGA was unable to detect NOx, so the NOx concentration will be estimated using CO2.and NOx relations. The CO2 values obtained allow us to directly compare the CO2 output of Jet A, Jet A with Carbon Capture, and our experimental Biofuel with Carbon Capture. Sensors on the test cell also provide temperature and pressure in various locations of the engine as well as fuel flow rate, which allow us to calculate the overall engine efficiency in the 3 different experiments listed above.

Future Works

As this project mainly served as a proof of concept for Carbonate Looping, future work would include the construction and testing of a full-sized system including a Carbonator and Calciner. Further research would need to be done to ensure full “looping” could be achieved on a jet engine as only the initial carbon capture using CaO was explored. It would also involve investigating more advanced biofuel mixtures to increase effects, such as the addition of a catalyst to help reduce initial Carbon emissions and the long-term effects of such a biofuel mixture on the internal components of an engine.

Manufacturing Design Methods

The design portion consisted mostly of extensive research into these topics followed by the creation of something that could feasibly be created in this environment and still work chemically. The biggest challenges we faced were: The budget, temperature requirements, and access to data acquisition tools. Due to a lack of funds, we were forced to redesign and simplify the carbon capture and heat transfer systems. In addition, the lack of funds limited our choice of resilient materials and data acquisition tools, which caused numerous redesigns of the systems and testing plans. As a solution, we will be using an on-campus facility for testing the gas samples and Larsen Industries’ performance sensors.

Project Summary

Traditional aircraft emissions impose a tremendous threat to the environment with reference to pollutant gases produced by the engines. The use of solar-powered systems significantly reduces this effect. The ample supply of solar energy improves productivity and efficiency while also prolonging flight time and extending range. SOAR strives to overcome the challenge of breaking the world endurance record for low altitude unmanned aerial vehicles under 50 kg by attempting flight for over 81.5 hours. The project will encompass the design, fabrication, and testing of the unmanned aerial system (UAS) that will attempt to accomplish the feat.

Project Objective

1. The team shall design and build an unmanned solar aerial system. 2. The system shall perform a full charging and use rotation over a 36-hour flight test.​ 3. The team shall deliver a system capable of surpassing the current world record for low altitude, under 50 kg flight.​

Manufacturing Design Methods

Resin 3D Printing, PLA 3D Printing, Composite Laminating, Monokoting wing, Lamination of solar cells, Autodesk Fusion 360, Ansys Fluent, XFLR5, CNC routing

Specification

Aerodynamics: - Wingspan - 6m - ​Aspect Ratio - 12.67 ​ - Total Lift - 151.78 N​ - Total Drag - 8.21 N ​ Electrical: - Solar Cell Output - 450 Watts ​ - Total Battery Capacity - 130 Amp Hours ​ - Max Thrust Produced - 26 Newtons​ - Telemetry Range – 500m​ - Position Determination Error - ± 2m​ - Response Time – 0.3 s​ Structural: - Mass – 14 kg ​ - Carbon fiber spars​ - Fiberglass and Monokote skin​ - Balsa wood ribs, shear webs, and stringers​

Analysis

In our data analysis, a variety of methods and software were utilized to ensure comprehensive results. Ansys was used to perform simulations and analyze the performance of the designs. Xflr5 allowed for simulations of airflow and analysis of the aerodynamic properties of our models. Telemetry testing was performed to collect data on the performance of our designs in real-time, while solar and propeller testing helped to measure efficiency and power output. Finally, structural testing was conducted to ensure the durability and strength of the designs.

Future Works

The design and manufacture of a solar-powered airplane to break the world record of 81.5 hours was a challenging yet rewarding task. Through the use of advanced methods and software, our team was able to develop a high-performing and efficient aircraft. Our project was made possible by the hard work and dedication of our team members, who demonstrated exceptional engineering skills and attention to detail. We are confident that our solar-powered UAS has the potential to set a new world record, and we look forward to seeing its success. Moving forward, our team will continue to conduct extensive flight tests to evaluate its performance under different weather conditions and make necessary adjustments to improve its efficiency and endurance. Additionally, we will explore the possibility of incorporating new technologies and materials to further enhance the aircraft's capabilities. The safety of the UAS will remain our top priority, and we will take all necessary measures to ensure a successful and safe flight. With our continued dedication and commitment to innovation, we are confident that our solar-powered UAS will satisfy our original objectives, and also pave the way for a more sustainable future in unmanned aviation.

Other Information

The team faced a series of challenges throughout this year, the technical challenges were broken down by subsystem and can are described in further detail. Aerodynamic challenges stem from surface quality discrepancies that can affect lift and drag values obtained from simulations, potentially undermining the accuracy of data relied on by the team. Electrical challenges are posed by various components that are critical to project success, including solar cells, motors, and batteries, which must be carefully managed to ensure they produce the expected amount of power, prevent overheating, maintain connectivity, and prevent damage. Structural challenges relate to critical interfaces, fatigue of components, and staying within mass budget constraints, all of which can impact the overall design and reliability of the UAS. Logistics challenges include budget constraints, time management for manufacturing, and availability of components, all of which can affect progress and project completion. The team mitigated mentioned project challenges by smoothing surfaces within acceptable limits, conducting thorough testing of all components and critical interfaces, implementing proper cooling and charging management, developing backup systems, preventing fatigue of components, staying within mass and monetary budget constraints, allocating sufficient time for manufacturing and testing, and identified alternative sources for components in case of shortages or delays in delivery.

Manufacturing Design Methods

Resin 3D Printing, PLA 3D Printing, Composite Laminating, Monokoting wing, Lamination of solar cells, Autodesk Fusion 360, Ansys Fluent, XFLR5, CNC routing

Project Summary

The Structural Health and Rupture Detection (SHARD) project is meant to assist in solving safety concerns in a world where the odds of damage from micrometeoroids and orbital debris are increasing and the Earth is beginning to feel the effects of Kessler syndrome. The goal of SHARD is to create a cost-effective method of detecting the location of an impact against a spacecraft's hull and alerting the astronauts onboard of potential dangers due to impact damage, both internal and external. This is achieved through the use of a modular system consisting of a lattice-tile structure. The tiles utilize a series of sensors placed throughout a Whipple shield design to detect impacts throughout the tile, and the lattice is designed to provide attachment points for the tiles and to provide power and connect the sensors inside the tiles to the computer the astronauts will be using for this system. The computer program is designed to be easy to setup and use by the astronauts and ground control, and the tiles are designed to be cheap to build and easy to attach and detach from the lattice structure.

Project Objective

The design shall have a modular layout, and individual tiles shall be replaceable without the need for the deconstruction of the overall design. The design shall detect impacts capable of causing plastic deformation of the outermost and innermost protective layers. The design shall have an improved sensor resolution in comparison to modern designs. The design shall be able to process, store, and display data from the tiles in a user-friendly manner. The design shall be operable within temperatures and pressures encountered in space.

Manufacturing Design Methods

The hull design consists of a lattice framework and tiles mounted onto the lattice. The lattice consists of elongated hexagonal plates that will be welded together and reinforced along the connection points. The tiles are modular and symmetrical in design, cut from aluminum sheets, and welded together, first the top and sides, then the innards are installed, and then the bottom is welded onto the piece. The tiles and lattice will be attached via screws running through the length of the structure, and a plug on the underside of the tile will connect the tile sensors to the CPU.

Future Works

Possible future upgrades to the project would be upgrading the RDCS system to have both a faster release mechanism and better repair capabilities. The piezoelectric sensors would be upgraded to detect vibrations over a wider range, which would ultimately decrease the number of sensors needed in the tile. In addition, the clamping system could also be altered to allow easier tile removability within the lattice structure.

Manufacturing Design Methods

The hull design consists of a lattice framework and tiles mounted onto the lattice. The lattice consists of elongated hexagonal plates that will be welded together and reinforced along the connection points. The tiles are modular and symmetrical in design, cut from aluminum sheets, and welded together, first the top and sides, then the innards are installed, and then the bottom is welded onto the piece. The tiles and lattice will be attached via screws running through the length of the structure, and a plug on the underside of the tile will connect the tile sensors to the CPU.

Project Summary

The Aerospike Project is a research and development project aiming to optimize ideally-expanded aerospike rocket nozzles in order to maximize thrust efficiency. This project aims to design, construct, and test multiple aerospike nozzle configurations. The specific configurations that will be developed are a full spike nozzle optimized for solid propellant and a truncated nozzle optimized for solid propellant, and utilizing a base bleed. The baseline used to compare the different nozzles will be Specific Thrust also known as the thrust coefficient or non-dimensional thrust. This was chosen because it is a function of nozzle geometry only and characterizes the performance of the nozzle. By calculating the theoretical performance and then analyzing the actual performance of each configuration, the most effective and efficient design will be identified for use in single-stage-to-orbit propulsion systems. This project represents an exciting opportunity to push the boundaries of rocket nozzle design and contribute to the ongoing evolution of space exploration technology. With careful attention to detail, innovative thinking, and rigorous testing, we hope to make a significant contribution to the field.

Project Objective

The project's objectives are: - Design a full aerospike nozzle and a truncated aerospike nozzle with a gaseous nitrogen base bleed and meeting initial conditions, design requirements, and capable of testing on META - Perform simulations on CAD designs and propellant to confirm designs and supplement theoretical values - Manufacture nozzles to support 10 sec. static test fire - Test fire each aerospike nozzle using META, collecting thrust, pressure, and temperature data - Analyze data, calculate for actual specific thrust and thrust efficiency, and compare to theoretical values and between aerospike nozzle configurations

Manufacturing Design Methods

The geometry of the nozzle was constructed by creating a MATLAB code utilizing compressible flow and rocket equations and inputting the initial conditions. From this code, the spike and cowl's curvatures and relationship were plotted as two lines representing the converging, throat, and diverging sections along the spike, and converging and throat sections along the cowl. These points were then imported into Creo Parametric and rotated around a center axis, creating a toroidal aerospike and the inner geometry of the cowl. Then the housing was designed to hold the cowl and spike assembly together, as well as mount onto the Aerotech motor and provide entry points for the nitrogen flow. Designs were then 3D-printed to assess the full assembly and test for fitment in the motor. After the designs were finalized, the individual parts were manufactured from 17-4PH Stainless Steel. The full spike and the truncated spike were outsourced as manufacturing required a 5-axis CNC. The bleed lines into the t-bar of the spikes were made in-house. The cowl and housing were manufactured in-house utilizing subtractive manufacturing processes. Afterward, the spikes and cowl were coated with nickel conductive aerosol spray to increase their heat capacity. The housing was coated with VHT Flameproof ceramic aerosol paint for the same reason.

Specification

The entire aerospike nozzle is designed to be integrated with META, utilizing an AeroTech High Power RMS 75/6400 motor. The initial conditions are: - Chamber Pressure, Pc = 1000 psi - Chamber Temperature, Tc = 2238.589 K - Expansion Ratio, ε = 8.4486 - Exit Radius, re = 18 mm - Exit Area, Ae = 1017.876 mm - Specific Gas Constant, R = 58.31 (

Analysis

ANSYS Fluent was used to simulate fluid flow on the computer-designed models, providing insight into the behavior of the gases, and the heat transfer in these complex geometries. Simple 2D designs were used to simulate different fuel and material types first, then implemented into 3D models for optimal results after being tested and vetted. Boundary conditions were represented in the form of pressure inlet, pressure outlet, nozzle wall, and far field. After the designs are proven to be optimized using ANSYS Fluent stimulations, they are to be manufactured, and test-fired, collecting actual thrust, temperature, and pressure results. Using the collected data, specific thrust and thrust-to-weight ratios are to be calculated and then compared to the theoretical results provided by the specially made MATLAB code and ANSYS Fluent stimulations.

Future Works

Looking into the future, the team would like to test-fire our currently manufactured aerospike nozzles, as well as design and develop a third aerospike nozzle optimized for liquid propellant and utilizing its turbomachinery to invoke a base bleed while still meeting specific initial parameters. This would be done to test the team’s design approach against the industry's and to compare the changes in specific thrust and thrust-to-weight between the propellants.

Other Information

Project Website: https://aerospikefit.wixsite.com/aerospike

Manufacturing Design Methods

The geometry of the nozzle was constructed by creating a MATLAB code utilizing compressible flow and rocket equations and inputting the initial conditions. From this code, the spike and cowl's curvatures and relationship were plotted as two lines representing the converging, throat, and diverging sections along the spike, and converging and throat sections along the cowl. These points were then imported into Creo Parametric and rotated around a center axis, creating a toroidal aerospike and the inner geometry of the cowl. Then the housing was designed to hold the cowl and spike assembly together, as well as mount onto the Aerotech motor and provide entry points for the nitrogen flow. Designs were then 3D-printed to assess the full assembly and test for fitment in the motor. After the designs were finalized, the individual parts were manufactured from 17-4PH Stainless Steel. The full spike and the truncated spike were outsourced as manufacturing required a 5-axis CNC. The bleed lines into the t-bar of the spikes were made in-house. The cowl and housing were manufactured in-house utilizing subtractive manufacturing processes. Afterward, the spikes and cowl were coated with nickel conductive aerosol spray to increase their heat capacity. The housing was coated with VHT Flameproof ceramic aerosol paint for the same reason.

Project Summary

On October 30, 2018, while approaching Bennu, the OSIRIS-REx Touch-And-Go Camera System’s (TAGCAMS) NavCam 1 began acquiring images of Bennu to support optical navigation and orbital maintenance. Some of these images contained anomalies (i.e. image features not caused by known astronomical objects) that were initially attributed to radiation artifacts. These artifacts are instantaneous, occurring in a single image frame. On January 6, 2019, after OSIRIS-REx began orbiting Bennu for the first time, NavCam 1 began observing image anomalies which were visible over multiple image frames. These were determined to be caused by particles ejected from Bennu’s surface. The observation of several more mass particle ejection events allowed for the cataloging of confirmed multi-frame particle streaks, with the intent to determine if qualitative metrics could be used to identify anomalies occurring within a single image frame. A total of 2,148 image anomalies were visually inspected and their basic characteristics were recorded. Due to a dark reference pixel region on NavCam 1 (a pixel region in which light cannot enter the detector), certain image anomaly characteristics were definitively attributed to cosmic rays. After examining 356 confirmed particles which were seen in multiple image frames, certain characteristics were also attributed to real objects. Using these characteristics, we have developed two simple image metrics that discriminate between real objects and radiation artifacts. After a thresholding process, Metric 1 divides the DN of every pixel in the streak by its maximum DN, then takes the standard deviation of those values. The metric value for particles is expected to be lower. Metric 2 takes the fifth highest pixel DN of an anomaly and divides it by the maximum DN of the anomaly. For particles, this metric value is expected to be close to 1. A beta distribution was fit to each histogram of the metric values. These metrics allow us to estimate the probability of an image anomaly being caused by a real object. If unresolved streaks are observed in single image frames during future missions which use the same detector as TAGCAMS, these metrics may be applied to determine if the streaks are real objects or radiation artifacts. This includes the Lucy mission, a mission to the near-Earth asteroid Apophis using the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft, and the Mars Sample Return Mission.

Project Objective

The first objective was to catalog image anomalies in images taken by NavCam 1, then determine if qualitative metrics could be used to identify a single frame anomaly as a particle or radiation artifact. The second objective was to create the qualitative metrics capable of distinguishing particles and radiation artifacts.

Analysis

We have developed two simple image metrics that discriminate between real objects and cosmic rays by considering an anomaly’s intensity variation. Both metrics ignore saturated pixels. For Metric 1, any pixel whose digital number (DN) is less than the mean and 1.5 standard deviations is not processed. After thresholding, this metric divides the DN of every pixel in the streak by its maximum DN, then takes the standard deviation of those values. The metric value for particles is expected to be lower. For Metric 2, the thresholding process excludes any pixel whose DN is less than 1.25 times the mean and the standard deviation. Then, the metric takes the fifth highest pixel DN of an anomaly and divides it by the maximum DN of the anomaly. For particles, this metric value is expected to be close to 1. A beta distribution was fit to the histograms of both metric values.

Future Works

If unresolved streaks are observed in single image frames during future missions which use the same detector as TAGCAMS, these metrics may be applied to determine if the streaks are real objects or radiation artifacts. This includes the Lucy mission, a mission to the near-Earth asteroid Apophis using the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft, and the Mars Sample Return Mission.

Project Summary

The objective of this project was to reconstruct a computing cluster and test several simulations on it, including a Geant4 Gas Electron Multiplier (GEM) detector and a CMS Software Components (CMSSW) dark matter simulation.

Project Objective

Design and test several simulations on a High Throughput Computing Cluster to test time efficiency.

Analysis

The analysis shows that a typical machine is capable of running a moderate amount of jobs, but large simulations will preform better on a cluster due to its extreme parallelization.

Future Works

The CMSSW simulation is still in progress and will be continued through the semester.

Project Summary

The Spectral Matrix Method (SMM) is a class of methods used to determine the direction of travel of waves propagating through a magnetic field. These directions are called wave vectors and they can be calculated using tri-axial magnetometer data. SMM is used in a variety of fields, most notably in the space sciences where it is used with both ground and space based magnetometers. This project aims to replicate the results of another researcher, Ulrich Taubenschuss, who quantified SMM performance using simulated data. SMM was implemented in Python following the mathematics outlined in his paper and others which included the use of wavelet transforms and singular value decomposition methods. The code was tested by finding wave vectors at various signal-to-noise ratios, the results of which had good agreement with Taubenschuss as depicted below. Future work includes a calculation of the wavenumber of the wave vectors, since SMM only gets the unit wave vector. This requires correlating data between multiple magnetometers and is part of Dr. Martin's research plan for the summer.

Project Summary

This goal of this project was to review the literature on the important properties and characteristics of the neutrino; and its role in modern physics. The other goal of this project is to devise problems in physics and astronomy that require the knowledge of neutrino properties. My aim was to keep this project concise. My focus is on the physical properties of a neutrino’s creation, mass and interactions, the questions in physics that neutrinos could help answer, and the current experiments around the world tackling these questions. I looked at the fundamental properties of the neutrino like its mass oscillations, the different types of neutrinos, and its different sources. With these, I could determine what makes the neutrino a complex and important subject in particle physics. Following that, I looked at the recent and planned experiments involving neutrino detection, oscillation, and their interactions in an experimental setting. Particularly the experiments searching for neutrino oscillations using the LSND and MiniBooNE experiments. The conclusions from these publications helped fine tune the discussed properties of neutrinos in recent years. Figure 1 represents the Finally, I compiled literature on the questions asked about these properties in physics and the neutrino’s current standing in the Standard model. The importance in understanding the neutrino could lead to incredible breakthroughs in search for a complete standard model of particle physics.

Project Summary

Dust particles interacting with the proton beams have caused thousands of beam-loss events at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider (LHC), some of which led to premature beam dumps and even magnet quenches, frequently resulting in day-long shutdowns. It has been hypothesized that dust particles on the vacuum chamber wall of the LHC become negatively charged due to electron clouds and can detach from the chamber wall by the electric field of the beam. To test this hypothesis, we performed experiments in a vacuum chamber to study the electrostatic lofting of dust particles from conducting surfaces. First, a monolayer of dust (silica,

Project Objective

To test this hypothesis, we designed and performed experiments in a vacuum chamber to study the electrostatic lofting of dust particles from a conducting surface. Dust charging and high voltage lofting experiments are performed, and the resulting dust movement is recorded using a high-speed camera. The properties of dust charging and levitation are characterized from these videos. In order to achieve the long-term goal of dust mitigation in the LHC, we must first understand the relevant parameters that facilitate dust lofting.

Analysis

The properties of dust charging and levitation are characterized from recorded high-speed videos. Scripts were developed to process these videos. The common algorithms for these scripts include lofted particle detection, multiple particle tracking, size calculation using a Flood Fill algorithm, particle velocity and acceleration calculations, and correction for the camera angle relative to the dust sample. Different calculations are performed depending on whether the dust grains lofted during high voltage (vertical trajectories) or during charging (parabolic trajectories). Additional calculations are performed for dust grain surface potential, charge, and lofted angle using QR Factorization.

Future Works

Experiments are ongoing at the University of Colorado, Boulder, with the goal of better replicating LHC conditions using sudden impulse charging and high voltage application. It is also important to note that dust in the LHC experiences charging (from synchrotron radiation) and high voltage simultaneously, while we have only tested charging and high voltage applications separately. Data has been collected from charging using an UV lamp and high voltage application simultaneously, and is in the process of being analyzed.

Other Information

This research is being presented at a poster session at the International Particle Accelerator Conference (IPAC) in Venice, Italy on May 7-12, 2023, by one of our CERN collaborator's, Rudiger Schmidt.

Project Summary

Martian and lunar regolith simulants are used in various biological research projects and are critical elements for understanding the future of terrestrial life on other celestial bodies. Given the lack of available source material, researchers are forced to develop and rely on regolith simulants to replicate the surfaces of Mars and the Moon. However, microorganisms are ubiquitously distributed across our planet and could significantly impact the use of these simulants for research into space agriculture and planetary protection. Various methods could be used to sterilize regolith, including steam sterilization (autoclaving), dry heat (hot-air oven), chemical and others, each with varying degrees of efficacy. This study will evaluate the microbial contamination of existing Martian and lunar simulants and how this may impact plant growth research. Our efforts contribute to an emerging toolbox for improved research methods using regolith simulants in biological research.

Project Objective

Determine microbial count of regolith simulants, then perform the same procedure for autoclaved regolith to validate whether autoclaving is an effective sterilization method for these substrates. How do we determine if the simulants are sterile?

Manufacturing Design Methods

Fresh regolith simulant samples were collected and cultured on various agars to determine microbial count.  Repeat using autoclaved regolith simulant to determine the efficacy of this sterilization method The three different growth mediums used in the procedure are Nutrient Agar, Sabouraud Dextrose (SD) Agar and Glycerol Yeast Extract (GYE) Agar. 

Analysis

Regolith simulants are not sterile and could be a reservoir of plant growth promoting bacteria or pathogens. However, these populations are not as significant as expected.  We recommend that regolith simulants must be sterilized before using it for biological research.

Future Works

Grow plants in regolith after Loss on Ignition to see how well they grow with the organic matter removed. Further studies to determine what species of microbes live in the regolith simulants. This could give an indication as to what microbial life the surfaces of Mars and the Moon can support. Perform experiment using other sterilization techniques to determine most efficient sterilization method.

Manufacturing Design Methods

Fresh regolith simulant samples were collected and cultured on various agars to determine microbial count.  Repeat using autoclaved regolith simulant to determine the efficacy of this sterilization method The three different growth mediums used in the procedure are Nutrient Agar, Sabouraud Dextrose (SD) Agar and Glycerol Yeast Extract (GYE) Agar. 

Project Summary

With the launch of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in 2021, resolving the companion objects of host stars has entered the frontier of photometry. Methods for this data reduction have become pivotal for imaging potential exoplanets, white dwarfs, or other small and dim objects. This research aims to streamline point source function (PSF) subtraction methods using JWST data to create a simple program in Python for the telescope’s NIRCam coronographic data. The processed final images will be used in the construction of a model at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) to synthesize reference PSFs used in future observations.

Project Objective

The primary goals of this project are to reduce errors in data reduction through modifying PSF subtraction after the PSF images have been processed through the JWST pipeline and to reduce errors in observational astronomy by eliminating the need for longer observation time on telescopes and more observational reference images through the development of the reference PSF synthesis model.

Analysis

Major challenges stemmed from an error in the JWST image post-processing pipeline. In one of the two science images of the target, the white dwarf target was completely obscured in the coronagraphically removed intensities, and a detrimental hot pixel remained in the image, which contaminated the pixel counts and calculation of the scale factors for luminosity and stellar shifting. The hot pixel was removed by use of median pixel values rather than the mean in coadding the data cubes. However, the lacking intensity for the white dwarf is still skewing the scale factors. The initial method of using pixel medians to calculate the values was unsuccessful. Presently, the root mean square of localized shell annuli regions within the area of starlight is being used to produce a masking matrix over the reference images to scale the luminosity to that of the host star.

Future Works

Through experimentation in methodology and mathematics, this project works to remove as much error as possible from the received coronagraphic data. The resultant product will be applied toward the creation of a program that synthesizes reference PSF data. This would reduce error majorly in high contrast imaging involving PSF subtraction by eliminating the need for observed, real reference PSFs, allowing for more frequent and less erroneous high contrast imaging to be performed for more small bodies, such as exoplanets.

Project Summary

Establishing a bioregenerative life support (BRLS) system with supplemental food production is key to sustainable space colonization efforts at sites too remote for easy resupply from Earth. Decomposers are organisms capable of breaking down organic material making nutrients available for reuse by other organisms. We propose that incorporating edible decomposers into BRLS systems is an efficient method of recycling valuable organic and inorganic wastes for a settlement’s ecosystem, while also introducing a supplemental nutrient source for settlers. Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom), will be our model fungi due to its rapid growth and minimal labor requirements. Our previous research examining the growth and limitations of P. ostreatus in Mars Global Simulant (MGS-1) supports the feasibility of incorporating fungi into BRLS systems. We hypothesize that regolith will aid in the decomposition process and that the use of edible fungi will improve both food safety and overall BRLS efficiency. In the present investigation we will optimize the ratio of inorganic to organic material that will support viable fungi growth as a preliminary step in this process.

Project Summary

Europa is an icy moon of Jupiter, almost the size of Earth’s moon. Due to the presence of a global subsurface ocean of liquid water and bioessential elements, it is seen as one of the prime candidates in the search for life beyond Earth. This project attempts to understand the habitability of Europa’s ocean using a bioenergetic model to estimate how much energy would be available to any organism living there and if it is enough for them to survive. The Python package NutMEG was used to generate this model. It has previously been used to answer the same question for Enceladus. This previous code was used and altered to match the environmental conditions of Europa. The conditions used are based on the results of prior research and realistic conditions that would allow for the existence of life. Since Europa has an estimated pH of about 2.6 and potentially up to 6, so a range from 2 to 7 was used. The temperature range of 260 K to 400 K was picked to match the habitable temperature range. The overall ocean temperature of Europa is likely at the low end, and temperatures at the high end would be reached at hydrothermal vents. After adjusting the pH and temperature values, simulations were run to determine the power supply per cell. It was found that this increased at lower pH and higher temperatures, with the highest values being around 10-5 W cell-1. This power supply would be high enough to support the growth of methanogens, which on Earth require a minimum power supply per cell around 10-20 W cell-1. However, these results are unreliable because the chemical composition does not accurately reflect that of Europa. With more time, this aspect will be included in the model to allow for better results. The figure below shows the significant results discussed, with the darker-shaded regions showing a higher power supply per cell.

Project Summary

Top quarks are the most massive elementary particle in the Standard Model. They are produced in large quantities at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) as a pair of quark and antiquark, which then decay into several lighter particles. Here, the decay mode in which two electrons are produced in the final state is investigated. Since top quarks are so massive, they decay very quickly—more quickly than the time it would take for the spin of the quark to decorrelate from the spin of the antiquark—so, this spin correlation information is passed on to the electron daughter particles in the form of their angular distribution. The goal of this project is to determine the degree of quantum entanglement between the spins of the top quark and antiquark by measuring the angular distribution of the electron daughter particles in the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment at the LHC. This project complements previous low-energy entanglement experiments by making similar measurements on a high-energy system. A linear fit to the normalized angular (cosine) distribution of daughter electrons in a sample of Monte-Carlo simulated events is performed using the MIGRAD chi-squared minimization algorithm in ROOT. The fitted parameter D was compared to the known upper threshold for entanglement at different energies, represented by the invariant mass of the top quark production for each event. The threshold for entanglement was satisfied for events with an invariant mass less than ~600 GeV; low energy events were more likely to produce a measurably entangled top quark-antiquark pair.

Future Works

Future analysis steps will include accounting for effects of the detector through an “unfolding” procedure, estimating systematic errors, and applying the developed methodology to events in which the daughter particles are either two muons or one electron and one muon. Finally, the same methodology will be applied to the full “Run 2” (years 2016, 2017, 2018) real dataset from CMS.

Project Summary

The purpose of our research is to understand the accretion physics for supermassive black holes by comparing the power spectra of observational data to synthetic test data. The observational data is pulled from the RXTE AGN Timing & Spectral Database website, spanning time periods for just a few months for some objects to up to a decade and a half for others. Synthetic test data models light curves in red based on previous observational data and our current understanding of black hole physics. By comparing these power spectra, we can theorize and try to find explanations for discrepancies in synthetic test data versus observational data, furthering our understanding of Keplerian motion, Lense-Thirring Precession, and relativistic effects. In sum, we learn how temperature distribution changes from varying periodicity in active black holes by looking at their power as a function of oscillating frequency. What this includes is X-ray emissions of active galactic nuclei and pulsars in distant galaxies. This has proven useful in the probing of dark matter in relation to strong gravitational fields and galactic formation. A study of dense matter and strong mysterious gravitational fields is shown by Lamb (2007) with their QPO Models and Comparisons with Observation. Similarly, Pasham et al. (2018) compares light curves of ASASSN-14li’s X-ray QPO between three different telescopes, XMM-Newton, Chandra, and Swift to estimate QPO significance under white and red static noises, opting not to use test data and rather only observational data. The key takeaway is that there are multiple ways to collect light curve data from a supermassive black hole at the center of a galaxy and exploring these facets is useful to high energy astrophysicists and space scientists. Overall, the ultimate goal of this research is to find quasi-periodic oscillating objects of interest from the RXTE AGN Timing & Spectral Database website for the purpose of further observation, leading to a proposal for the Swift telescope. The following questions are meant to be answered by this project: • Can test data be used to reliably predict active black hole flares and quasar periodicities? • Will observing these flares light curves’ change our test data, and will new periodicities be found? • What kind of powerful high energy emissions can be observed from these flares and what will they mean for our Milky Way galactic core?

Project Summary

Currently, Mars is inhabitable to any life, human or otherwise. Mars is geologically dead, so there is not a molten core producing a magnetosphere. The atmosphere is thin, unable to sustain liquid water, and continuously stripped by the sun. Our topic is to change three fundamental parameters to increase the likelihood of life on the surface of Mars. The focus is on the magnetosphere, the atmosphere, and the water supply. Each of these parameters depends on the other. The magnetosphere protects the atmosphere and surface from being stripped and sterilized by solar winds and radiation. The atmosphere allows for surface temperature and pressure to increase and for liquid water to be present. Liquid water is essential to human life and access to it greatly increases the possibility of survival. Major challenges were that terraforming a planet is almost completely theoretical and considered science fiction. Finding information about terraforming Mars was hard to find and finding feasible options was challenging. We were able to choose some viable options to help the parameters evolve and change without human contamination on the planet itself. An artificial magnetosphere would be created using Phobos. The material would be vaporized from Phobos by a release gas system powered by a nuclear reactor. From there the material is ionized by solar radiation and the revolution of the moon would create a current loop to form an artificial magnetosphere. To create an atmosphere suitable for human life, multiple controlled orbits of ammonia-heavy asteroids would be in place to collide with Mars to release Ammonia and water. This would deposit organic material onto Mars and would react with the carbon-dioxide-dominated atmosphere to produce the natural fertilizer Ammonium-Carbamate which leads to the increase of the Greenhouse Effect. The collisions would also increase the water supply by producing water vapor and depending on the size of the asteroid leads to heat reaching further into the crust and access to a cryosphere and groundwater. Underneath the Martian, regolith could be a cryosphere with a reservoir of groundwater below it. The depth thickness of the cryosphere would depend on the location on the planet. Combining the effect of all these methods, we were able to increase the likelihood of life to 54%, without settlements on the surface. Anticipated future work for us is to try to increase the likelihood above 54%. Improving upon the methods we chose or finding methods that work better. A broader application is that these methods can be implemented in more simulations and experiments to reproduce the results or achieve better. More scientists would be interested in attempting to start the process of terraforming Mars and from there other planetary bodies in the solar system. Our project makes terraforming seem more like a reality for the future when there is a more advanced technology, information available, and theories.

Project Summary

Figure 1 of Trigonometric Parallaxes of High-mass Star-Forming Regions: Our View of the Milky Way (Reid et. al. 2019) shows the original distribution of high-mass star forming regions within the Milky Way Galaxy, and the purpose of our research is to expand on these points. We will be analyzing and compiling stellar objects found within three specific arms of the galaxy to assist in outlining, shaping, and modeling its overall spiral structure. The three arms in which our team is researching are the Outer-Norma, Crux-Scutum, and Carina-Sagittarius, shown in red, blue, and purple, respectively. To complete this task, we must write and run a successful ADQL query which locates points around several calculated locations, or masers. Masers are objects that emit high-intensity radio waves, and by utilizing the detailed contents of Gaia’s Data Release 3 (Gaia DR3), we can locate dense regions of stars around each maser, per arm. A three-dimensional spherical search around each maser for each arm was conducted in Gaia DR3. The size of the search was calculated using the parallax of each maser with a radius of 120 pc in each direction. Using the data Gaia DR3 found in the spherical search, we created histograms which displayed the varying distributions of points for each respective arm. Next steps for this research would be to create a top-down 3D view of the distribution of the new sources found with Gaia DR3, with respect to the center of the galaxy. ,

Project Objective

The structure of our very own Galaxy has much to be discovered. Our main research goal is to assist in modeling the spiral structure of the Milky Way. With the guidance of Dr. L. Quiroga-Nuñez, we will continue the analysis and compilation of stellar objects within three arms of the Milky Way: Outer-Norma, Carina-Sagittarius, and Crux-Scutum. Initial data points have been obtained from (Reid & et al, 2019), which analyzed over 200 masers thought to be associated with massive young stars. The Gaia Data Release 3 (Gaia DR3) provides a great opportunity to build off what has already been properly analyzed and compiled (Gaia creates richest star map of our Galaxy – and beyond, 2018). The current plot gives our best estimate of the shape of the arms based on radio data, but our goal is to locate these high-mass stellar regions in the optical regime as they are mostly concentrated along each arm so it will represent a more accurately plot the galaxy.

Manufacturing Design Methods

We will be using the Gaia mission to locate optical stars to help better trace the arms of our Galaxy. By using Gaia’s Data Release 3 (GDR3), data from Figure 1, Microsoft Excel, and a created ADQL query, a 3D cone search was performed around masers to locate points in three of the Milky Way’s spiral arms: Outer-Norma, Crux-Scutum, and Carina-Sagittarius.

Future Works

The combined data found during this research will be used to plot a top-down distribution of the found sources in each arm.

Manufacturing Design Methods

We will be using the Gaia mission to locate optical stars to help better trace the arms of our Galaxy. By using Gaia’s Data Release 3 (GDR3), data from Figure 1, Microsoft Excel, and a created ADQL query, a 3D cone search was performed around masers to locate points in three of the Milky Way’s spiral arms: Outer-Norma, Crux-Scutum, and Carina-Sagittarius.

Project Summary

Synthetic surveys are a powerful tool in astronomy and astrophysics that allows researchers to compare mathematical tools and models to predetermined data from simulations. Our research aims to create synthetic surveys of simulated Galactic data from the FIRE simulations using the ANANKE software. The surveys will be modeled for the Vera Rubin telescope, which is currently under construction in Chile and will conduct the Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) over the next decade. To summarize, our objective can be described as follows: Can we create synthetic surveys for the Vera Rubin Telescope using the FIRE simulations and ANANKE software?

Project Objective

Can we replicate the results of the FIRE simulations using the FIRE-2 public data release? Can we establish the limitations and characteristics of the Vera Rubin telescope, which will be applied to the synthetic survey? Can we translate these characteristics into parameters for our synthetic survey generator, ANANKE? Using the FIRE data, can we apply our modified ANANKE code to generate a final synthetic survey for the Vera Rubin telescope?

Manufacturing Design Methods

To begin with, we employed the Feedback In Realistic Environments (FIRE) project to import simulation data of Milk-Way-like galaxies in the form of massive “particles” of 7070 solar mass. Next, we generated a mock catalog using the ANANKE software, which split the “particles” into individual stars using initial mass functions (IMF). Stellar properties such as luminosity and metallicity were computed from isochrones, while positions and velocities were generated from kernels. Finally, the ANANKE software converted the mock catalog into a synthetic survey by applying a self-consistent extinction model, a selection function, and error modeling based on the telescope limitations and calibration

Analysis

The final output of the code is a synthetic survey of each star as will be viewed by the future Vera Rubin telescope (expected first light August 2024), which includes many valuable data points, including stellar properties, ages, and locations. In conclusion, our modified ANANKE software successfully created a practical synthetic survey for the future Vera Rubin telescope using FIRE simulation data

Future Works

Further work remains to be done to solidify the validity of this survey, and in time it will be judged based on direct observations by the telescope. Future expansion of this project could include incorporating this synthetic survey data into All-Sky Density Maps to explore formation processes in Milky-Way type galaxies.

Manufacturing Design Methods

To begin with, we employed the Feedback In Realistic Environments (FIRE) project to import simulation data of Milk-Way-like galaxies in the form of massive “particles” of 7070 solar mass. Next, we generated a mock catalog using the ANANKE software, which split the “particles” into individual stars using initial mass functions (IMF). Stellar properties such as luminosity and metallicity were computed from isochrones, while positions and velocities were generated from kernels. Finally, the ANANKE software converted the mock catalog into a synthetic survey by applying a self-consistent extinction model, a selection function, and error modeling based on the telescope limitations and calibration

Project Summary

Globular clusters (G.C.s) are dense structures of ancient stars that orbit in galactic halos. These breathtaking celestial structures hold light to uncovering secrets of galactic formation, stellar evolution, and the history of the universe. One of the largest aspects of G.C. evolution is the escape rate of stars, which provides insight into the cluster's dynamical processes, including binary interactions, and even core collapse. In this research study, we aim to investigate the evolution of globular clusters through the analysis of the gravitational interactions between the stars in them with a self made N-body simulation to determine how the size, specifically the scale radius effects ejection rates and ultimately the evolution of the cluster. Changing the scale radius gives an interesting way of squeezing and pulling apart the initial state of the globular cluster, like a Hoberman Sphere, which essentially allows one to change the density distribution of the stars in the cluster. To do this an N-body simulation was made in MATLAB using the Particle-Particle approach and MATLAB’s built in numerical integrator called ode113. ode113 is a variable order solver, meaning it can automatically switch between different numerical methods with different orders of accuracy. This method was used for it’s ability to handle stiff differential equations as well as it performs well in close interactions of stars while maintaining reasonable computational timescales. To create a globular cluster the popular Plummer Model is used which is a function that assumes the cluster is in finite space, and that the stars are in equilibrium to generate x, y, z, positions, and velocities for every star. To generate masses for the stars in the cluster the Kroupa IMF is used, the Kroupa IMF is a probability distribution function to determine what mass stars and how many would be created from a certain initial mass. To determine the ejection rate of the stars in the globular cluster, the sphere of influence is determined at the final time step of the simulation and the distance from the center of mass of every star is checked to see if it is within the sphere of influence or not, if it is not, it is ejected. The timespan that was simulated was 400Myr, with a 500 solar mass, initial mass. A control cluster with a scale radius of 8 parsecs was used to compare how increasing and decreasing the spatial distribution of stars in a cluster effects the evolution through ejection rates. Future work that can be done from this is vast, some of the possibilities can be from allowing basic collisions and investigating in higher resolution the specific interactions that cause the ejections, scaling simulation up to be able to simulate galaxies and mergers, all the way to using adapting the program to work in investigating the mystery of the missing black holes in the Milky Way. Currently I am working on higher resolution, longer time spans, higher mass, and allowing more dynamic interactions between stars such as mergers. Additionally in the future, I plan on periodically adding additions to the code and update it on Github for anyone to use!

Project Objective

The objective is to create an N-body program to simulate a globular cluster over several millions of years to track the number of stars that get ejected from a control G.C. to then determine the escape rate of the control G.C. An additional two other globular clusters with larger and smaller scale radii are used to consider how a G.C.s evolution is influenced by the initial proximity the stars have with each other and if it affects the escape rate of the cluster.

Manufacturing Design Methods

With my own home-made N-body simulation in MATLAB, I used a built in function called ode113 which is a variable order numerical integrator for stiff diff-eqn.’s. The Kroupa IMF is used to determine the number of stars and their masses for each globular cluster. A cluster mass of 500 Solar Masses was chosen. This created 515 stars which were used in a Plummer Model which is a spherically symmetric distribution of stars scaled by a scale radius to get the x,y,z positions and velocities of a given amount of stars. To determine if a star escaped the sphere of influence is calculated during the final timestep, then the distance of all stars will be checked to determine if they are within that distance to the center of mass, if not it is ejected.

Specification

The specifications of the parameters used for the simulation are as follows, all G.C.s will contain an initial mass of 500 solar masses, a total of 515 stars, being simulated over a span of 400Myr with 500,000 total timesteps. With these parameters, G.C.1 has a scale radius of 6 parsecs, G.C.2 has a scale radius of 8 parsecs, and G.C.3 has a scale radius of 12 parsecs.

Analysis

From the simulations it can be concluded that there is a large correlation between the density distribution of stars and escape rates, 34 stars lost in 400Myr for a high density cluster, and 11 stars lost for a low density cluster. This emphasizes how the density distribution changes the escape rate and overall evolution of a cluster. Additionally this shows that it could be important to run high resolution simulations with more stars over longer periods to investigate interactions are most likely to eject a star from a cluster.

Future Works

I am currently already implementing more dynamic interactions, the type of interactions before ejection, as well as higher resolution, more stars, and longer timescales

Other Information

(references) H.D.Curtis, in Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students (ThirdEdition), third edition ed., H. D. Curtis. L. Wang, et. al., “The dragon simulations: globular cluster evolution with a million stars” (The rest can be given if requested!))

Manufacturing Design Methods

With my own home-made N-body simulation in MATLAB, I used a built in function called ode113 which is a variable order numerical integrator for stiff diff-eqn.’s. The Kroupa IMF is used to determine the number of stars and their masses for each globular cluster. A cluster mass of 500 Solar Masses was chosen. This created 515 stars which were used in a Plummer Model which is a spherically symmetric distribution of stars scaled by a scale radius to get the x,y,z positions and velocities of a given amount of stars. To determine if a star escaped the sphere of influence is calculated during the final timestep, then the distance of all stars will be checked to determine if they are within that distance to the center of mass, if not it is ejected.